Forgot To Add Thiosulfate To One Of The Test Tube What Will They Observe?

23rd European Symposium on Figurer Aided Procedure Engineering

Vladimir Zhukov , ... Ilkka Turunen , in Computer Aided Chemical Engineering, 2013

Abstract

Gold leaching process with thiosulphate solutions is an of import process of considerable significance for environmental and economic aspects of sustainability. Thiosulphate leaching helps reduce risks of environmental pollution in comparing with cyanidation, thus limiting negative societal effects, just complexity of the process chemistry even so requires investigation and modeling.

The objective of this work is to create models of gold leaching in various types of rectors. The results prove that batch reactor model fits to experimental information, continuous reactor model allows utilizing information technology in scheme of serial of apparatuses and pour reactor model makes information technology possible to evaluate optimal number of reactors in series.

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Sulfur Dioxide Removal

Arthur Fifty. Kohl , Richard B. Nielsen , in Gas Purification (Fifth Edition), 1997

Oxidation Inhibition Chemistry.

The virtually ordinarily used additive to inhibit oxidation is thiosulfate. This ion was initially added to FGD systems in the form of sodium thiosulfate solution. However, in late 1987, tests at an operating utility plant demonstrated that elemental sulfur could be used at a toll which is only virtually 20% of the cost of adding sodium thiosulfate (Moser et al., 1990). The sulfur is converted to thiosulfate by the following reaction. Conversion efficiency is on the club of 50%:

Lee et al. (1990) institute that element of group i hydrolysis of sulfur under slaker/lime tank conditions in lime-based wet FGD plants resulted in much more effective conversion of sulfur to thiosulfate than is possible in limestone-based systems.

Thiosulfate is believed to inhibit sulfite oxidation by reacting with free radicals generated in the chain reactions involved in sulfite oxidation. The chain reactions are catalyzed by transition metal ions such as Iron_three ⁺, and the utilise of a chelating amanuensis such as ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) to remove the metal ions has been shown to augment the oxidation inhibition properties of thiosulfate (Maller et al., 1990).

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Shell-Isolated Nanoparticles-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

J.-F. Li , J.-C. Dong , in Encyclopedia of Interfacial Chemical science, 2018

The Quantitative Analysis of Temporal Changes by SHINERS Technique

It is well known that quantitative analysis is a huge challenge encountered during plasmon-enhanced Raman spectroscopy studies. Every bit a novel technique, SHINERS method has already been utilized in surface analysis fields. Aureate-thiosulfate leaching process is inhibited by the formation of the passive layer at Au electrode surfaces which can forbid the dissolution of Au from ore samples. Lipkowski'south group employed SHINERS technique for quantitative assay of temporal changes in the passive layer at Au material surfaces in thiosulfate solution. ⁵⁷ In this study, the APTES band of SHINs was used every bit internal standard to compensate the surface enhancement fluctuation. After subtracting the SHINERS spectra in NaF solution, the APTES band could be efficiently removed and the corrected Raman spectra correlated well with the relevant SERS results. The SHINERS spectra for long immersion times in thiosulfate electrolyte with several new bands compared to the spectra recorded at shorter immersion times ( Fig. 7A ), provided a good chance to correlate the quantitative changes in Raman bands intensity with the rate of Au leaching in thiosulfate solution. Clearly, during the kickoff 50-min immersion time, the Au leaching rate speedily decreases and and then gradually becomes downwards to an almost linear decay following the time passed. Fig. 7B exhibits the relationship between the Raman peaks and the immersion time after correction of the backgrounds, and normalized Raman intensities of 382, 316, and 460   cm^{−   1}, stand for to [Au(S_twoO₃)₂]^{3   −} complex, adsorbed sulfide, and polymeric sulfur species at the electrode surfaces, respectively. The summit intensity of [Au(Southward_iiO₃)_two]^{iii   −} circuitous effectually 382   cm^{−   one} first decreases speedily during the initial immersion time and then decreases gradually with longer immersion time, which correlated well with the leaching current. Nonetheless, the adsorbed sulfide meridian at 316   cm^{−   1} and the polymeric sulfur species elevation at 460   cm^{−   one} exhibited dissimilar phenomena. The peaks intensities for both sulfide and polymeric sulfur species increased with the increase in the immersion time. The SHINERS event clearly provided the quantitative evidences that the formation of the elemental sulfur species could efficiently prevent Au leaching in thiosulfate solutions. This should be primarily attributed to the fact that the adsorbed sulfur species occupied the Au electrode surface and blocked the interaction betwixt Au surface and thiosulfate, eventually preventing the [Au(South_iiO₃)_ii]^{3   −} complex formation. This methodological advancement allows usa to monitor the temporal changes in the passive layer limerick at Au electrode surface through correlating the Au dissolution rate with relevant Raman bands, and and then to further identify the formation machinery of passivating species. Overall, SHINERS technique tin can exist hands employed in anticorrosion enquiry at different substrates for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Noteworthy, the strategy of quantitative SHINERS analysis method at dissimilar electrode surfaces species undeniably provides a potential pathway for fundamental researches and practical applications.

Fig. seven. (A) Raman results of SHINs/Au electrode after being immersed in 0.1   M Na₂S_iiO₃ solution (pH ∼   x.0) between 300 and 600   min; (B) the normalized integrated band intensity as a function of immersion time, I^D _t, of adsorbed sulfide (316   cm^{−   one}), [Au(Due south₂O₃)₂]^{3   −} circuitous (382   cm^{−   one}), and polymeric sulfur (460   cm^{−   1}).

Reproduced past permission from Smith, Southward. R.; Leitch, J. J.; Zhou, C.; et al. Quantitative SHINERS Analysis of Temporal Changes in the Passive Layer at a Gilt Electrode Surface in a Thiosulfate Solution. Anal. Chem. 2015, 87(seven), 3791–3799. Copyright 2015, American Chemical Gild.

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Bleaching and Pulp Backdrop Calculations

Pratima Bajpai , in Biermann'south Handbook of Pulp and Newspaper (3rd Edition), 2018

Bleaching

one.

From the betoken of view of pollution abatement, why is ClO₂ preferable to Cl₂? What are the number of electrons transferred in the redox reactions per mole of CI in each?

2.

Write the reaction of hypochlorite with iodide.

iii.

A 50.0   mL aliquot of ClO₂ solution consumed xix.96   mL of 0.152 N thiosulfate solution. What is the concentration of ClO _two in g/50?

four.

In the Solvay procedure for making ClO₂, how much methanol is theoretically required per ton of sodium chlorate?

5.

A softwood, unbleached kraft pulp has a Kappa number of 34. During the bleaching process, all of the lignin and 2% of the carbohydrates are removed, what is the lurid yield of the bleach institute? If the yield from the pulp plant is 46%, what is the overall bleached pulp yield from wood?

half-dozen.

Describe how to prepare and standardize 5   gallons of KMnO₄ solution of 0.1000 N to be used in the lurid mill for quality command. The laboratory has ii Grand  H_iiSO₄, 1 N  H₂SO_iv, ii M KI, 0.1000 N Na_twoS_twoO₄, and starch indicator solution.

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Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in stainless steels

V. Kain , in Stress Corrosion Cracking, 2011

5.three.iv SCC induced by sulfides

Polythionic acids (H_iiS _x O₆, ten = 3, iv, or 5) are known to assault chromium depletion regions in sensitized stainless steels. The harm has been shown to follow the kinetics observed for sensitization (Samans 1964 ). In addition to polythionic acids, SCC has also been reported in thiosulfate solutions at ambient temperatures ( Isaacs et al., 1982). Very low concentrations of thiosulfate (0.1 ppm) are required for SCC at ambient temperature (Watanabe and Kondo 2000). It has therefore been argued (Samans 1964, Sedriks 1996) that polythionic acid induced SCC is really stress assisted intergranular corrosion of sensitized stainless steels. The role of the stress is to open up the intergranularly corroded regions (salt layer), exposing fresh chromium depletion regions at grain boundaries to intergranular corrosion (dissolution) by polythionic acrid.

Other sulfur containing solutions known to cause SCC for austenitic stainless steels are (Perillo and Duffo 1990) thiocyanate solutions (at concentrations greater than 10^{−   iv} mol/L) just it is less aggressive than SCC in thiosulfate or tetrathionate solutions. In addition, type 403 stainless steel in tempered martensitic microstructural status has been shown (Bavarian et al., 1982) to undergo pitting and SCC in 0.01   m Na₂And so₄ at 75–100°C. Such cracking was shown not to occur at lower temperatures of 25 and 50°C. This was attributed to pits acting every bit sites for SCC cracks and the pits had preferentially nucleated at manganese sulfide inclusions. Even for ferritic stainless steel (low interstitial 26Cr-1Mo), SCC has been suspected (Hoxie 1977) at 132°C in h2o containing chloride, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and traces of oil, thiocyanate and organic acids.

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Waste product-water problem in cloth industry

J.N. Chakraborty , in Fundamentals and Practices in Colouration of Textiles, 2010

32.10.four Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Decaying material in effluent is consumed past various micro-organisms, naturally present in the stream with the assist of sunlight and dissolved oxygen in water. The rate of degradation of decomposable material by micro-organisms crusade decrease in amount of oxygen (free oxygen) present in the steam proportionately. Assessment of oxygen consumed during microbial degradation gives an indication of the amount of biodegradable thing degraded. The amount of decomposable material may be monitored at various stages of handling of sewage through test of BOD and is expressed quantitatively as parts of oxygen per million parts of sewage or other wastes.

The examination consists of incubation of dilutions of known volume of effluent in sealed bottles at twenty°C for 5   days, followed by titration of residuum oxygen. From the divergence between amount of residual oxygen in original water and incubated effluent after titration, BOD₅ of effluent is calculated.

Apparatus and reagents

BOD incubator, BOD bottles of 300   ml capacity, pipettes, burettes, 250   ml Erlenmeyer flasks.

Manganese sulphates solution: Information technology is prepared past dissolving 480   g of MnSO₄.4H_iiO in water followed by its dilution to i litre. This solution must not develop color with starch when added to an acidified solution of KI.

Alkali–iodide–azide solution: 500   g of NaOH and 150   yard of KI are dissolved in water and diluted. To this solution is added 10   yard of NaN₃ (sodium azide) previously dissolved in 40   ml distilled water. The final solution is diluted to i litre. This solution must not develop colour with starch solution when diluted and acidified.

Starch indicator: 0.v   m starch pulverisation is mixed in 100   ml distilled water, boiled for a few min and cooled.

Stock sodium thiosulphate (Na₂Southward₂O₃) solution (0.1   N): 24.82   m Na₂South_twoO₃.5H₂O is dissolved in boiled and cooled distilled water and finally diluted to 1 litre. Preserve if necessary, by calculation 5   ml CHCl₃ for i litre of thiosulphate solution.

Standard sodium thiosulphate solution (0.025   N): 250   ml of stock Na₂Due south_twoO₃ solution is diluted to one litre with freshly boiled and cooled distilled water and preserved in the same mode by adding 5   ml CHCl_iii. Standardize before each titration using standard K_twoCr_iiO₇.

Another reagent required for this examination is conc. H₂SO₄.

Procedure

(A)

Grooming of sample

(i)

Sample of waste water is filtered to remove other wastes and large suspended matter.

(ii)

Iv BOD bottles are taken and labeled as 1/100, 1/50, 1/33 and B (blank). Dilutions to the extent of 1/100, 1/50 and 1/33 of effluent were prepared by adding approximately three, half-dozen and 9   ml of sample to labeled bottles. Each bottle is filled upward with sufficient water that upon insertion of the glass stopper, water level volition rise above the ground glass joint, inserting a liquid seal. To the bottle leveled B, merely water is added. Filled upward bottles must be costless from air bubbles with the water seal maintained.

(iii)

All the four bottles are incubated for 5   days at 20   ºC in an incubator.

(B)

Decision of residual oxygen

(i)

After keeping 5   days in incubator, stoppers are removed from the bottles and 2   ml of MnSO₄ followed by 2   ml of alkali–iodide–azide reagent are added to each bottle keeping the tip of pipette below the surface of liquid in the bottle. After replacing stopper, the pinnacle of the bottle is rinsed with water.

(ii)

Each bottle is vigorously shaked for almost 30s to disperse any precipitate uniformly throughout each bottle; the activeness is to be repeated in case re-precipitation starts.

(3)

The bottles are now immune to stand up until the precipitates have settled about half way down. Stoppers are removed and 2   ml of conc. H₂SO₄ is added to each canteen, allowing the acid to run downwardly the inside of the neck. Stoppers are again placed on each bottle, the top of each bottle is rinsed followed by immediate vigorous shaking for 30   south.

(four)

200   ml of each sample is titrated with 0.025   N Na₂S_iiO₃ with gentle agitation in the sample and the titration is continued till a faint yellow color is observed. 1   ml of starch indicator solution is added, which causes alter in colour to blueish. The titration is further slowly continued with drop past drop addition of Na_twoSouthward₂O₃ till the blue colour disappears completely and the sample becomes colourless. Volume of Na_iiSouthward₂O_three used is noted down which is straight proportional to the residuum oxygen in each canteen.

Calculation

$\begin{array}{l}{\text{BOD}}_5=[\text{ppm}\text{rest}\text{oxygen}\text{of}\text{B}\left(\text{i}.\text{due east}\text{ml}{\text{Na}}_2{\text{S}}_{\mathrm{two}}{\text{O}}_3\right)-\text{ppm}\text{residual}\text{oxygen}\text{of}\hfill \\ \text{diluted}\text{sample}\left(\text{i}.\text{east}\text{ml}{\text{Na}}_2{\text{S}}_{\mathrm{two}}{\text{O}}_3\right)]\times \text{dilution}\text{cistron}.]\hfill \end{array}$

The BOD of simply those sample dilutions are calculated where there has been a reduction of at least 2   ppm balance oxygen as judged by comparison with the blank (B) and in which in that location is at to the lowest degree ane   ppm oxygen remaining. Average of the BOD values those falls within these limits is calculated to determine BOD_five of original sample.

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Pitting corrosion

Nihal U. Obeyesekere , in Trends in Oil and Gas Corrosion Enquiry and Technologies, 2017

nine.6.2 Pitting in electrolytes containing sulfur

Pitting corrosion in the presence of sulfur species depends on the blazon of metallurgy.

The sulfur species studied were sulfate $\left({{\text{SO}}_4}^{2-}\right)$ with +6 valence for sulfur, sulfite $\left({{\text{And then}}_3}^{2-}\right)$  +4 valance, tetrathionate ${{\text{S}}_4{\text{O}}_{\mathrm{six}}}^{\mathrm{two}-}$ with +2.5 valance, thiosulfate ${{\text{Due south}}_{\mathrm{two}}{\text{O}}_{\mathrm{three}}}^{2-}$ with +2 valance, and sulfide Southward²⁻ with −2 valance.

Furnishings of these sulfur species in electrolyte solutions depend on the sulfur valance, pH, alloy composition, and heat treatment. Fang and Staehle studied the polarization curves for alloys 600 and 800 (UNS N06600, and N08800) in various sulfur species at 60°C (140°F) and 95°C (203°F). They reported that the stability of the passive moving picture decreases with the decrease of sulfur valance. The examination of the surfaces subsequently polarization over the potential range indicated that the intergranular corrosion occurred mainly in solutions of sulfate $\left({{\text{And so}}_4}^{\mathrm{two}-}\right)$ , sulfite $\left({{\text{And so}}_3}^{2-}\right)$ , tetrathionate $\left({{\text{S}}_4{\text{O}}_{\mathrm{vi}}}^{2-}\right)$ , and thiosulfate $\left({{\text{S}}_{\mathrm{two}}{\text{O}}_3}^{\mathrm{two}-}\right)$ , whereas S²⁻ or HS⁻ produced pitting. They also reported the increase of $\left({{\text{S}}_2{\text{O}}_3}^{2-}\right)$ concentration at pH half-dozen and 95°C (203°F) accelerated the anodic dissolution [9]. However, the pH variation from 3.5 to 8 did not modify anodic electric current for thiosulfate at a constant concentration.

The role of the chloride in thiosulfate solution is not articulate. Newman et al. [54] reported that for AISI 316L, thiosulfate pitting did not occur unless the chloride concentration was fairly high and more than 10⁻²  M, and unless the tooth concentration of chloride exceeded that of thiosulfate. However, at that place are reports of the occurrence of pitting corrosion in thiosulfate solutions without the presence of chloride ions [10].

Thiosulfates dissolved in aqueous solutions are known to exist detrimental to corrosion resistance of alloys such as stainless steel [55].

Duret-Thual et al. [56] used XPS technique to report the role of thiosulfate in pitting corrosion in the presence of chlorides. The authors used several grades of Fe–17Cr alloys, with different amount of sulfur contents. They concluded that the addition of thiosulfate in the presence of chlorides (30   ppm thiosulfate in 0.02   M of NaCl) yielded a detrimental effect, increasing pitting corrosion. The detrimental effects on pitting resistance increased with increased sulfur content in the alloy.

XPS results indicated that the thiosulfates are reduced on the metallic surface, whereas they practise non interact strongly with the passive film surface. The authors concluded that sulfide islands are formed at the bare alloy surface, preventing repassivation. The sites on the bare metal with sulfide inclusions were the preferred site for further thiosulfate reduction and increasing pitting [56].

Newman et al. [vii] studied the effects of various types of sulfur species for type 304 stainless steel in mildly acidic or neutral solutions with 0.5   M. These tests were conducted with potentiodynamic measurements. The concentration of sulfur species was changed from 0 to ii   G solutions. The authors reported an increase in pitting when thiosulfate concentration was increased from 0.01 to 0.02   Chiliad. However, when the concentration of thiosulfate was increased in a higher place 0.v   M, pitting was inhibited. KSCN showed a similar merely lesser effect, while in the presence of sodium sulfide (H₂S in acidic solutions and HS⁻ at neutral pH). They observed a reduction of the pitting potential. Improver of sodium tetrathionate (Na₂Southward₄O₆) up to 0.05   M increased the pitting potential.

Sulfates in electrolyte solutions along with NaCl evidence an inhibitory effect. Ernest et al. [57] reported that adding sodium sulfate to one   M solution of NaCl resulted in lowering pitting corrosion. The authors found that adding 0.1   1000 of sodium sulfate to a solution of i   Thou NaCl produced a cover with finer holes. This would make cation transfer slower toward the bulk solution, making pitting corrosion rate slower.

Pistrous et al. [58] studied the result of the add-on of dilute sulfate into sodium chloride solutions. The report focused on metastable and stable pitting on 304 stainless steel. They observed that the sulfate causes the distribution of available pit sites to be shifted to higher potential. This implies that the pit initiation is inhibited. The pit propagation is inhibited by sulfate ions and this is true for both metastable and stable pits.

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The electrochemical nature of stress corrosion bang-up

D.D. Macdonald , in Stress Corrosion Cracking of Nickel Based Alloys in Water-cooled Nuclear Reactors�, 2016

half dozen.viii Summary and conclusions

The importance of coupling between the internal and external environments of propagating cracks in sensitized type 304 SS in simulated BWR coolant environments at 288°C, in thiosulfate-containing solution at 22°C, and for the intergranular fracture of AISI 4340 steel in half-dozen   Thousand NaOH at lxx°C, has been examined past measuring the coupling current that flows between the crack and the external surface, where information technology is consumed by the reduction of a cathodic depolarizer (eg, oxygen). Coupling is the necessary condition that is required to sustain differential aeration and hence localized corrosion, and it provides an opportunity to examine the nature of the processes that occur at the fissure tip from the "noise" contained in the current. The findings of this work can be summarized as follows:

•

The coupling current consists of quasi-periodic oscillations ("noise") superimposed upon a mean. The racket contains valuable mechanistic information that is postulated to arise from fracture events that occur at the scissure tip, every bit well as from repassivation of the exposed metal of historical events on the crack flanks as they go progressively more distant from the crack tip.

•

In the case of fracture in sensitized type 304 SS in simulated BWR coolant at 288°C, the oscillations are resolved into packages of 4 to 13 that are separated by short periods of low amplitude (intense action). These data are consequent with fracture occurring event by event and grain by grain across the crack front, progressing up (or down) a crevice face that is less than favorably oriented with respect to the practical stress. When the crack intersects a grain purlieus that is favorably oriented, the boundary "unzips," thereby producing a brief menstruum of high-frequency noise. For intergranular fracture in the same alloy in thiosulfate solution, and for intergranular fracture in AISI 4340 in caustic solution, the data are consistent with many microfracture events occurring more than or less simultaneously across the fissure front. When corrected for the difference in temperature, the microfracture frequency observed in the thiosulfate solution is consequent with that observed in BWR main coolant every bit calculated using the known activation energy (forty  kJ/mol) for strain rate in sensitized type 304 SS. However, through the judicious pick of NaOH concentration, the fracture events occurring in AISI 4340 steel in 6   M NaOH at seventy°C can be temporally resolved, thereby allowing examination of the kinetics of individual events. The repassivation process is plant to be of the commencement gild in kinetic character, and a outset-order plot produces a rate abiding that depends on the rolling management of the steel from which the C(T) specimen was machined.

•

Although simply few data are available, the CGR in sensitized type 304 SS in high-temperature (250°C), dilute sulfate solution seems to exist linearly related to the coupling current, in understanding with the predictions of the CEFM. This relationship possibly provides an extraordinarily sensitive method for monitoring CGR because of the ability to mensurate very small currents.

•

Coupling between the internal and external environments, as embodied in the CEFM, leads to the prediction that the CGR will decrease every bit the crack depth increases. This relationship, which is an analytical issue of charge conservation and arises because of the increment in IR potential drop down the crack, which subtracts from the potential drop that is available on the external surface to drive the oxygen reduction reaction, has enormous implications for the rate of aggregating of localized corrosion damage.

•

Modification of the chemical and electrochemical properties of the external surroundings, including the external surfaces upon which the coupling current is consumed, is predicted and found experimentally to take a profound impact on the rate of crack growth. For instance, the CEFM predicts that increasing the specific impedance of the external surface, resulting in a subtract in the exchange current density for the reduction of oxygen (which consumes the coupling current that flows from the scissure mouth), will decrease the CGR. This prediction is institute to hold for the IGSCC in sensitized type 304 SS in loftier-temperature (250°C), dilute sulfate solutions; the reduction in the exchange current density is affected past the degradation of a ZrO₂ coating on the external surfaces (and only on the external surfaces). This observed reduction in the CGR is in first-class accord with the predictions of the CEFM. On the other mitt, catalyzing the oxygen reduction reaction on the external surfaces increases the CGR because of the increased power of the surfaces to eat a larger coupling current.

•

In all three cases, crevice growth is considered to be more consistent with a hydrogen embrittlement mechanism than with the classical SDR mechanism, primarily on the ground of the dimension of the microfracture events that occur at the crack tip. Thus, if the SDR mechanism occurred, the fracture dimension should be some small multiple of Burgers vector, respective to a (small) finite number of slip planes in a slip band at the fissure tip, and hence should be of the order of tenths of nanometers in dimension. Instead, the fracture events are found to be micrometer to hundreds of micrometers in dimension, respective to subgrain to supergrain sizes. The only mechanism that seems to exist consistent with these results is HIC, although dealloying may exist a viable candidate.

•

The apply of the CEFM for calculating the ECP and the CGR for a "standard cleft" in any component in the primary coolant circuit of a BWR operating at any specified power nether different water chemistry protocols has been demonstrated. The predictions illustrate the affect that electrocatalysis and electroinhibition accept on the accumulated damage, and provide a theoretical basis for assessing and designing strategies for the mitigation of SCC in operating BWR power plants. The predictions with respect to inhibition have been demonstrated in laboratory studies, whereas those for catalysis have been demonstrated in the field in the grade of HWC/noble metal chemical additions in the field.

•

The CEFM provides an alternative explanation for the shape of cracks in plane surfaces (semielliptical surface cracks), every bit follows: The evolution of the shape of surface cracks depends on ECP, stress intensity factor (K _I), and solution conductivity in sensitized type 304 SS in BWR environments. Local stress intensity cistron along the crevice front has picayune impact on the evolution of crevice shape, but it is not superior to that of environmental variables.

•

The ability of the CEFM to predict CGR in high-temperature aqueous systems has been evaluated using an ANN to derive the character of IGSCC in sensitized type 304 SS by training the cyberspace of a database developed from CGR data reported in the literature and based on an identical database developed from the predictions of the CEFM. The "graphic symbol" of IGSCC in both cases was defined as the contribution that each independent variable (temperature, ECP, K _I, conductivity, pH, and then on) makes to the dependent variable (CGR). The weights are calculated from the weights of the synapses (connections) between the neurons. Comparison of the characters demonstrates that the CEFM is capable of reproducing IGSCC in sensitized blazon 304 SS in BWR environments with high fidelity. A direct comparison of the CGRs predicted by the ANN and the CEFM supports the decision that the CEFM is capable of predicting CGR at least every bit accurately as it can exist measured.

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Coke Oven Gas Analysis

Dan P. Manka , in Analytical Methods for Coal and Coal Products, Volume Iii, 1979

Seven H₂S and HCN

Government regulations land that the steel industry must reduce the sulfur content of coke oven gas to 50 grains per 100 ft^three (800 ppm) so that emission of And then₂ formed in the combustion of the gas is drastically reduced. Furthermore, the regulation states that monitoring of the sulfur content must be on a 24-hr basis.

The monitoring regulation requires a undecayed wet chemic method and a continuous operational system for analyzing H₂S.

A Wet Chemic Method

Because near full calibration methods for desulfurizing coke oven gas also remove HCN, this wet chemical analytical method department will be divided into ane method for H_iiSouthward and another method for HCN.

ane H₂S

The original method adult by Shaw (1940) for analyzing H₂S in coke oven gas was modified past the author and John L. Kieffer, Chief Chemist, Pittsburgh Coke Plant, Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation. Considerable time and effort was put into the sampling and analytical techniques to make the method reliable and rapid. It has been tested repeatedly against various standard gases and chromatographic results. For more than 3 yr information technology has been used to verify new cylinders of standard gases and to verify results obtained on the plant continuous analyzer. It is equally accurate on the sour coke oven gas (high sulfur content, as much equally 9000 ppm H_twoS) and on the lean desulfurized gas (less than 800 ppm H₂South).

Reagents

Concentrated hydrochloric acid

Cadmium chloride solution—10 % anhydrous salt

Sodium carbonate N/one solution

Hydrochloric acid N/1 solution

Dilute muriatic acid solution—80 mliter N/one acrid per liter

Standard iodine North/ten solution—(2.3 mole KI: 1 mole I₂)

Standard sodium thiosulfate N/x solution

Starch solution indicator

Methyl orange indicator

The sampling probe is a ¼ in. stainless steel tubing inserted into the plant gas principal with the end of the tubing aptitude in the direction of gas flow. This is like to the probe used for ammonia and low-cal oil. A shut-off valve is fastened to the end of the probe immediately outside of the gas chief. The shortest possible length of stainless steel tubing connects the valve with the assimilation train. This line should exist insulated and heated to prevent condensation of h2o, particularly in common cold weather. All condensed water must be added to the CdCl₂ solution. The stainless steel tubing subsequently the absorption train is fitted with a needle valve for flow control. The line extends to a gas meter.

A Shaw sulfide flask (Cat. No. J-2242 Scientific Glass Apparatus Co., Bloomfield, N. J. 07003) and an 8 in. exam tube trap are each charged with 15 mliter of ten % CdCl_two solution and ii mliter of N/1 Na₂CO_three solution. The groove in the funnel top of the flask is closed. The probe is flushed with the sour coke oven gas by opening the close-off valve before connecting the apparatus. The flask, trap, and meter are continued to the probe in this order. If the gas contains a high concentration of NH₃, an auxiliary trap containing about xx mliter of dilute HCl is added to the system alee of the Shaw flask. Approximately 0.1 ft³ of gas are passed through the apparatus at a rate not to exceed 2 ft³/hr. At the end of the sampling period, the HCl solution in the NH_three trap is fabricated slightly element of group i to methyl orange and is added to the sulfide flask prior to evacuation.

During the test, log the meter temperature and pressure level. Subsequently disconnecting the apparatus, log the meter reading and the barometric force per unit area.

The contents of the trap(s) are washed into the flask with a minimum of water. The flask is evacuated by connecting the outlet stopcock to a h2o aspirator for no more than ten sec.

Add 10 mliter of concentrated muriatic acid through the grooved funnel superlative followed by a small amount of h2o. Mix by shaking the flask. A measured amount of an backlog of standard iodine solution is added in the aforementioned mode and the residuum done in with two small portions of water. Shake thoroughly. Slowly remove the stopper to equalize the pressure level gradually. Titrate the excess iodine with standard thiosulfate solution. Add 5 mliter of starch solution equally the end point is approached. The thiosulfate is mixed with the sample by attaching an 18 in. length of Tygon tubing to the inlet tube of the flask and blowing gently through information technology during the titration.

In addition to H₂S, mercaptans and thiosulfates also react in this method. However, tests take shown that the concentration of the latter ii constituents are less than 1 ppm, therefore, these are negligible.

Calculation: grains H_twoSouthward/100 ft³ of gas

$=\frac{\left(\text{net mliter N/10 iodine}\right)\times 0.0014\times 15.43\times 100}{\text{corrected cubic feet of gas in}\text{sample}}$

The test is like for the sweet gas, simply the volume of gas passed through the sulfide flask is 0.5 ft³.

2 HCN

In most desulfurization processes, HCN must be destroyed before H₂Due south is converted to sulfur or to sulfuric acid. Although continuous analysis of HCN is not required, the concentration should be adamant at intervals.

Since description of the method is too extensive to include in this chapter, the analyst is directed to the original article by Shaw et al. (1944). As well see Chapter 41, Section V,B,4, for analysis of HCN in gas from coal.

The sampling system should exist identical to the 1 described to a higher place for H₂S.

This method has been used extensively for checking standard gases and to verify the results of the chromatographic analyses.

H₂S concentration in coke oven gas is by and large consistent depending on the sulfur content of the coal charged to the ovens. Actually, a modify in coal sulfur is readily discernible in the H_twoS concentration in the coke oven gas.

The HCN concentration in coke oven gas varies from day to twenty-four hour period and does not follow a consistent pattern.

B Gas Chromatographic Method

The second government regulation states that the sulfur content of the sour and sweet gas must exist monitored on a 24-hr basis. Manka (1975, 1977) developed a continuous sampling and analysis organisation based on chromatography using a thermal conductivity detector for high concentrations of H₂S and HCN in the sour gas and the flame photometric detector (FPD) for low concentrations of H₂Southward, COS, and CS₂ in the sweetness gas.

The probe is a Teflon tube, 1¼-in. o.d. and ¾-in. i.d., which extends across the full width of the plant gas duct. The tube is inserted inside a 2-in. diameter stainless steel piping with ane-half of the pipage cut along the length of the probe, except at the superlative and bottom, and then that the 6 ⅜ in. probe openings in the Teflon tube are exposed to the gas. The probe is positioned and then that the openings are on the same form every bit the gas flow.

The coke oven gas flows to a knockout pulsate to remove entrained oil and tar, and so to a filter to remove plus 1.0 μ solids.

The gas flows or is pumped through ane in. stainless steel tubing which is heated at 65°C. Although a major portion of the clean gas is returned to the plant gas duct downstream from the sampling probe, a portion of the gas flows to two rotometers located in the gas Chromatograph, so to dissever sample valves.

The menstruation schematic for separation and analysis of the sulfur compounds in the sweet gas is shown in Fig. 6. In the flame photometric Chromatograph (FPD), a 600 μliter sample of coke oven gas is injected past the sample valve onto the ⅛ × 12 in. Teflon column, containing 100/120 mesh Teflon-6 coated with v % SF-96, a methyl silicone stationary phase. The sulfur compounds laissez passer through the cavalcade and backflush valve onto the second column, leaving behind oils, naphthalene, tar, and h2o. On a point from the control organization, the sample valve and backflush valve are switched to permit one source of nitrogen to backflush the tar, oils, and water to atmosphere and a second source to carve up the sulfur compounds on the ⅛ × 11 in. Teflon cavalcade filled with a special silica gel. The separated COS, CS_two, and H₂S menses to the FPD. The columns and valves are maintained at 63°C, and nitrogen is the carrier gas at a flow rate of 16 cm^three/min.

Fig. 6. Schematic for assay of low concentration of sulfur compounds.

These sulfur compounds, except H_iiSouth, can also be analyzed in the sour gas. The high concentration of H₂Southward saturates the detector. Therefore, the bespeak from the control system opens the selector valve as H_twoS is being eluted from the column and H₂S is eliminated to the temper through this vent.

The flow schematic for the separation of loftier concentration of H_twoSouth and HCN in the sour gas is shown in Fig. 7. The thermal conductivity unit is in a separate compartment with its ain valves and columns. A yard-μliter sample of coke oven gas is injected past the sample valve onto the precolumns which consist of a $\frac{1}{16}$ × 3 in. stainless steel tube filled with 100/120 mesh Porapak Q plus a $\frac{1}{\mathrm{sixteen}}$ × 12 in. stainless steel tube filled with 100/120 mesh Chromasorb P coated with 15 % Carbowax 6000. HCN and the unresolved sulfur compounds, except CS₂, elute through the backflush valve onto the 2d column, leaving behind the tar, oils, water, and CS₂. On a point from the control, the sample valve and backflush valves are switched. One source of helium backflushes the tar, oils, h2o, and CS_two, and another source of helium flows to the separation cavalcade. The H₂S and HCN are separated on two columns in serial, a $\frac{1}{16}$ × 3 in. stainless steel tubing containing 50/80 mesh Porapak T plus $\frac{1}{16}$ × 48 in. stainless steel tubing containing 100/120 mesh Porapak Q. All components flow through the thermal conductivity detector, but but the response to H₂S and HCN is recorded.

Fig. vii. Schematic for analysis of high concentrations of H₂Southward and HCN.

The columns and detector are maintained at lx°C. Helium is the carrier gas at a flow rate of 13 cmⁱⁱⁱ/min.

Concentrations of the components are determined by superlative pinnacle. The voltage at the maximum pinnacle of the peak is compared to the voltage of the same component in the standard gas. The results for each component are printed out in parts per one thousand thousand.

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Biosynthesized Nanomaterials

1000. Sathishkumar , ... P. Gowthaman , in Comprehensive Analytical Chemical science, 2021

iv.2 Biosynthesis of NPs using microorganisms

Microorganisms are mainly known for their harmful effects on mankind and animals. Only, they have also been used as probable "nano-factories" for advancement of environmental friendly greenish synthesis of the NPs. During the synthesis procedure, whenever the microorganisms receive the target ions from their environment, enzymes (as generated via the cell activities) of the microorganism used for the biosynthesis of NPs get started, where the metal ions are converted into the elemental metal atoms [52]. Microorganisms accept been shown to exist important nanofactories that hold immense potential as eco-friendly and price-effective tools, fugitive toxic, harsh chemicals and the high free energy need required for physiochemical synthesis [131]. Microorganisms have the ability to accumulate and detoxify heavy metals due to various reductase enzymes, which are able to reduce metal salts to metallic NPs with a narrow size distribution and, therefore, less polydispersity. Over the past few years, microorganisms, including bacteria (such every bit actinomycetes), fungi, and yeasts, have been studied extra- and intracellularly for the synthesis of NPs. According to location of NPs formation, the synthesis arroyo tin be divided into two types: intracellular and extracellular synthesis [132]. In the example of extracellular synthesis arroyo, the metal ion gets trapped on the jail cell surface and after that, in the presence of enzymes, the reduction process gets started. On the other manus, in the instance of intracellular synthesis approach, the metal ions are conveyed into the microbial cell to produce NPs in the presence of enzyme [133].

Microorganisms take been used for their remediation of toxic metals past the reduction of metal ions, but interest in NP product utilizing microbes has emerged quite recently. NPs are biosynthesized whenever the microbes take target ions from their atmosphere and then catechumen the metal ions into the metal chemical element by enzymes produced by cell activity. It tin can be categorized into intracellular and extracellular synthesis by site was nanomaterials are produced. The intracellular procedure involves of transporting ions to the bacterial cell to form NPs in the presence of enzymes. Extracellular NP synthesis includes attracting metal ions on the cell surface and suppressing ions in the presence of enzymes. The working mechanism of biosynthesis of nanomaterials by microorganisms is presented in Fig. ten.

Fig. x. Working mechanism of biosynthesis of nanomaterials by microorganisms.

In contempo years, the usage of microorganisms for synthesizing NPs tends to evolve in order to consider the processes of NP biosynthesis. NP synthesis of bacteria and fungi has developed more popularity relative to actinomycete and yeast synthesis, every bit the very avant-garde technology is usable in the synthesis of bacteria and fungi. Mechanisms of NP formation by microorganisms are usually formed following this manner: metal ions are first trapped on the surface or inside of the microbial cells. The trapped metal ions are then reduced to NPs in the presence of enzymes. In general, microorganisms touch on the mineral formation in two distinct ways. They can modify the limerick of the solution then that it becomes supersaturated or more supersaturated than it previously was with respect to a specific stage. A second means by which microorganisms tin can impact mineral formation is through the production of organic polymers, which can touch on nucleation by favouring (or inhibiting) the stabilization of the very first mineral seeds [134].

4.2.1 Biosynthesis of Au and Ag NPs using microorganisms

According to the blazon of microbes, microbial based approaches can be harmful to the environment so that fungi and bacteria were plant to produce NP equally possible intra or extracellularly synthesized silver nanoparticle. It reported that both micro and macro algae including Sargassum wightii [135] , Chlorella vulgaris, Kappaphycus alvarezii [136] and Fucus Chondrus crispus, vesiculosus [137] , Enteromorpha flexuosa [58], Spyrogira insignis and Tetraselmis kochinensis [138] were mainly used for silverish and gilded NPs synthesis.

Microorganisms can exist grown and multiplied nether the laboratory conditions; moreover, they can be manipulated and operated for optimal production of NPs, making micro-organisms more suitable for commercial product of copper NPs [52].

A silver-resistant psychrophilic bacterium Morganella psychrotolerans used for the synthesis of AgNPs [83]. During biological synthesis, the shape of NP was controlled by the growth kinetics. They have conducted some electrochemistry experiments afterward the interaction between bacterial cells and the silverish ions. The method can provide a better understanding of the mechanistic characteristics of bacteria mediated silver reduction [83].

In another study, the use of Streptomyces hygroscopicus for the biosynthesis of AgNPs and studied their activity against Gram-negative bacteria (Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli), Gram-positive leaner (Enterococcus faecalis and Bacillus subtilis) and yeast (Candida albicans) [95]. The results of the study betoken the usefulness of NPs as potential nanomedicine for the emptying of pathogenic microorganisms. A group of researchers from Brazil have reported the employ of red algae, Gracilaria birdiae, found along the coast of Piauí, Brazil, for the biosynthesis of AgNPs [136]. For the synthesis, they kickoff extracted the polysaccharide from the ruddy algae and used altered concentrations of 0.05%, 0.03% and 0.02% v/v at 2 unlike pH values, i.e., 10 and xi. The mixture was stirred for 30   min at 90°C. The hydrodynamic diameter of the synthesized AgNPs was calculated and found to exist between twenty.ii and 94.9   nm. Additionally, the synthesized NPs take a spherical shape, pocket-sized size and negative zeta potential value. They also studied the stability of the NPs and after iv months, no agglomeration in the nanomaterials was observed. Finally, the AgNPs were tested for antimicrobial activeness using Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli [136].

In contempo years, gold NPs take attracted more attention due to their widespread usages and it exhibits a large surface expanse and high stability due to their very small size and biocompatible condition. Recent studies have shown the possible positive and negative impacts of gold NPs on plant growth and development. Biological synthesis of size controlled gold NPs using the mucus Penicillium sp. was achieved utilizing bioreduction of AuCl ions which can contribute to intracellular formation of Au NPs with spherical structure. Temperature was an essential parameter for the growth of Penicillium sp. which tin control size of biosynthesized Au NPs at the same time this fungus exposed intracellular reduction which was a significant factor in the evolution and growth of gold ions [139]. Uniform and spherical gilt NPs were reported using extract of filamentous fungus Rhizopus stolonifera (KCCM 35486). AuNPs with one–five   nm size were verified byTEM and XRD spectra. Another study showed the synthesis of AuNPs by subjecting gold thiosulphate solution to sulphate-reducing bacteria [140]. Verticillium luteoalbum was institute capable of forming AuNPs when subjected to Au cations. Gold NPs were formed equally a imperial black ppt, which is centrifuged to get purified NPs. The analysis confirmed the formation of AuNPs. AuNPs of desired size, shape, and yield could be obtained past controlling the pH of reaction mixture [141]. AuNPs were successfully prepared by incubating Fusarium oxysporum extract with gilt chloride solution. The in vitro synthesis study showed the existence of reductase and peptides in the colloidal suspension equally well equally jump to the surface of AuNPs, which accounted for the formation and stabilization of gold NPs [142]. Intracellular gold NPs were formed when Verticillium sp., Plectonema boryanum [143] , Plectonema boryanum, Sargassum wightii, Chlorella vulgaris, Spirulina platensis was incubated with gilded ion solution. Royal precipitate formed in the mycelium was thoroughly washed and characterized. The UV-Vis spectra displayed assimilation pinnacle at 550 nm, confirming the production of AuNPs [144,145].

four.2.2 Biosynthesis of Cu and Zn NPs using microorganisms

The evolution of loftier metal NPs could be ascribed to the biological and proteomic reactions of the metallophilic microorganism to toxic environments. Heavy metal ions, such equally Hg^{2   +}, Cd^{2   +}, Ag⁺, Co^{2   +}, Cu^{two   +}, Ni^{2   +}, Atomic number 82^{ii   +}, and Zn^{ii   +}, have toxic effects on the survival of microorganisms. To counter these effects, microorganisms have developed genetic and proteomic responses to strictly regulate metal homeostasis [146].

The verbal mechanism for the intracellular formation of Cu and Zn NPs by microorganisms was not fully understood but the fact that NPs were formed on the surface of the microorganisms [146]. The Cu and Zn NPs ions were outset trapped on the surface of the microorganisms cells via electrostatic interaction between the ions and negatively charged cell wall from the carboxylate groups in the enzymes. Adjacent, the enzymes reduced the ions to course Cu and Zn nuclei, which subsequently grow through further reduction and accumulation. This enzyme is induced by nitrate ions and reduces Cu and Zn ions into NPs. The possible mechanism that may involve the reduction of Cu and Zn ions is the electron shuttle enzymatic metal reduction procedure. NADH and NADH-dependent nitrate reductase enzymes are of import factors in the biosynthesis of metallic NPs. B. licheniformis is known to secrete the cofactor NADH and NADH-dependent enzymes, especially nitrate reductase, which might be responsible for the bioreduction of Cu   + to Cu⁰ and the subsequent formation of Cu NPs [147].

Synthesized ZnO NPs using reproducible leaner Aeromonas hydrophila [148] every bit an eco-friendly reducing and capping amanuensis. The synthesized ZnO NPs were in spherical course with average particle size of 58   nm. The synthesized ZnO NPs were also subjected to antibacterial studies confronting various pathogens. Alternaria alternata [149] culture filtrate mediated synthesis of ZnO NPs was reported for the showtime time, which resulted in reduction of zinc sulphate to ZnO NPs. The obtained ZnO NPs had boilerplate particle size of 75   ±   5   nm. Likewise, the microorganisms mediated ZnO NPs were utilized to perform genotoxicity and cytotoxicity assays. The syntheses of ZnO NPs were done using Aspergillus fumigates [150]. The synthesized ZnO NPs were said to be an average size of 7   nm with spherical shape. Moreover, the biosynthesized ZnO NPs utilized to increase establish biomass were successfully accomplished. ZnO NPs at room temperature with the help of Rhodococcus pyridinivorans NT2. Furthermore, the synthesized ZnO NPs were subjected to various analytical techniques, which resulted in hexagonal phase, spherical shape NPs with average particle size ranging from 100 to 200   nm. Then the microorganisms mediated ZnO NPs were tested against cancer cell lines to report antimicrobial activity. Synthesized ZnO NPs using probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus plantarum [151] VITES07, which had hexagonal phase and boilerplate particle size of 7–19   nm with moderate stability a one-pot procedure for synthesis of ZnO NPs using Sargassum muticum [152] aqueous excerpt. The synthesized ZnO NPs had hexagonal stage of wurtzite shape NPs with boilerplate size of 30–57   nm synthesized ZnO NPs using ureolytic bacterial species Serratia ureilytica [153]. The synthesized ZnO NPs were too subjected to various characterization techniques, which resulted in spherical- to nanoflower-shaped NPs obtained with increasing time duration from xxx to 90   min. The synthesized ZnO NPs were further subjected to antimicrobial studies against toxic pathogens like Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus [154]. Microorganisms have dissimilar metal tolerance genes involved that enable cell detoxification through a multifariousness of mechanisms, such as complexing, efflux, or reductive atmospheric precipitation. Hence metallophilic leaner thrive in environments containing loftier concentrations of mobile heavy metallic ions, such every bit mine waste rock piles, efflux streams of metal processing plants, and naturally mineralized zones.

In fact, according to the type of microbes, microbial based approaches can be harmful to the environment so that fungi and bacteria were found to produce NP as possible intra or extracellularly synthesized Cu and Zn nanoparticle. It reported that both micro and macro algae including Sargassum wightii, Chlorella vulgaris, Kappaphycus alvarezii, and Chondrus crispus, were mainly used for Cu and Zn NPs synthesis [131]. Biological synthesis of copper NPs using Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium aurantiogriseum, and Penicillium waksmanii showed the formation of depression quantity proteins which could form extracellular synthesis of NPs and enzymes which human activity equally reductive aid to transfer Cu ions into Cu NPs [132]. Use of both bacteria and fungus including aurantiogriseum sp., and Pseudomonas stutzeri was reported to be used for synthesis of Cu NPs but this method of growing NPs using such microorganisms is very dull and express. With these limitations an alternative, safer, and faster arroyo was perceived for the synthesis of Cu NPs [155]. These microbes are resistant to those agents by water by and large infested with a number of microbes and the prolonged use of disinfectants and protective polyurethane foam with biosynthesized copper NPs over these h2o bodies which serve as a protective amanuensis from leaner likewise as these NPs act as biocatalyst for the reduction of nitrobenzene.

Many extracellular enzymes have outstanding redox properties and can function as the electron ship system for metal reduction. It is as well articulate that shuttle structure reduce ions to NPs using hydroquinones released by microorganisms such equally Geothrix fermentans [156], Shewanella oneidensi [157] and Mycobacterium paratuberculosis [158]. Fusarium oxysporium, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus sp. mediated titanium NPs accept been reported having of import factors such as energy source, pH, oxidation and presence of hydroxyl groups which are responsible for size, and shapes controlled NPs. Especially, presence of certain enzymes in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae excerpt plays an important role in governing the concrete parameters [159]. In the biological synthesis method, a number of factors are involved in the control of nucleation and formation of shape, size controlled metallic and metal oxide NPs such every bit solution or plant extract concentration, reactant time, temperature, growth condition, pH, limerick of microorganisms. These factors control the structural, morphological and optical properties of shape and size controlled nanomaterials for eco-friendly and ecology applications. A list of nanomaterials synthesized using biological method has been summarized in Table 1.

Table ane. A list of nanomaterials synthesized from various biological sources.

Biological sources	NM's	Shape/size	References
Agathosma betulina	ZnO	Spherical/25–thirty   nm	Thema et al. [160]
Aloe vera	ZnO	Hexagonal/x–fifteen   nm	Ali et al. [89]
Carica papaya	ZnO	Nanoflower/10–25   nm	Sharma et al. [94]
Plectranthus amboinicus	ZnO	Nanorod/80   nm	Fu et al. [161]
Nephelium lappaceum	ZnO	Needle/50   nm	Yuvakumar et al. [162]
Zingiber officinale	ZnO	Spherical/20   nm	Janaki et al. [163]
Acalypha indica	ZnS	Hexagonal/12   nm	Sathishkumar et al. [47]
Curcuma longa	ZnS	Spherical/20   nm	Sathishkumar et al. [47]
Phyllanthus emblica	ZnS	Nanorod/fourteen   nm	Sathishkumar et al. [164]
Tridaxprocumbens	ZnS	Nanobox/18   nm	Sathishkumar et al. [52]
Syzygyum aromaticum	ZnS	Cubic/35   nm	Sathishkumar et al. [165]
Acacia nilotica	Au	Spherical/6–12   nm	Majumdar et al. [166]
Camellia sinensis	Au	Nanorod/20   nm	Begum et al. [167]
Madhuca longifolia	Au	Triangular/7–iii   μm	Fayaz et al. [168]
Naregamia alata	Au	Polyshaped/9–27   nm	Francis et al. [169]
Olea europaea	Au	Hexagonal/50–100   nm	Khalil et al. [170]
Stevia rebaudiana	Au	Octahedral/8–20   nm	Mishra et al. [171]
Withania somnifera	Au	Spherical/Hexagonal/l   nm	Bindhani et al. [172]
Alpinia calcarata	Ag	Quasi spherical/5–15   nm	Pugazhendhi et al. [173]
Andrographis echioides	Ag	Cubic pentagonal/68–91   nm	Elangovan et al. [174]
Cinnamomumtsoi	Ag	Triangular/Hexagonal/20   nm	Maddinedi et al. [175]
Sterculia acuminata	Ag	Spherical/10   nm	Bogireddy et al. [176]
Trianthema decandra	Ag	Hexagonal/ten–l   nm	Geethalakshmi et al. [177]
Porphyra vietnamensis	Ag	Spherical/13   nm	Venkatpurwar et al. [178]
Annona squamosa	SnO	Spherical/25   nm	Rooban et al. [179]
Cleistanthus collinus	SnO	Spherical/49   nm	Kamaraj et al. [180]
Saraca indica	SnO	Spherical/2.one–4.i   nm	Vidhu et al. [181]
Trigonella foenumgraecum	SnO	Spherical/2.2–3.2   nm	Vidhu et al. [182]
Piper nigrum	SnO	Spherical/8.5   nm	Tammina et al. [183]
Litsea cubeba	SnO	Spherical/xxx   nm	Hong et al. [184]
Ocimum sanctum Linn	Cu	Spherical/8–130   nm	Patel et al. [185]
Syzygium aromaticum	Cu	Nanoflower/fifteen   nm	Rajesh et al. [186]
Punica granatum	Cu	Nanorod/40–80   nm	Nazar et al. [187]
Calotropis procera	Cu	Spherical/v–30   nm	Gu et al. [188]
Garcinia mangosteen	Cu	Spherical/14   nm	Harne et al. [189]
Tinospora cordifolia	Cu	Hexagonal/6–8   nm	Udayabhanu et al. [190]
Annona squamosal	TiO2	Spherical/23   nm	Roopan et al. [191]
Catharanthus roseus	TiO2	Irregular/25–110   nm	Velayutham et al. [107]
Euphorbia heteradena	TiO2	Rutile/20   nm	Nasrollahzadeh et al. [192]
Hibiscus rosa sinensis	TiO2	Spherical/seven   nm	Kumar et al. [193]
Mangifera indica L	TiO2	Spherical/30   nm	Rajakumar et al. [194]
Solanum trilobatum	TiO2	Oval/70   nm	Rajakumar et al. [195]
Amaranthus spinosus	FeO	Quasi-sphere/58–530   nm	Muthukumar et al. [196]
Punica granatum	Iron3Ofour	Amorphous/100–200   nm	Venkateswarlu et al. [197]
Tridax procumbans	Iron3O4	Irregular/lxxx–100   nm	Senthil et al. [198]
Aloe vera	Fe3O4	Spherical/5–50   nm	Phumying et al. [199]
Hordeum valgare	FeO2	Baggy/30–300   nm	Makarov et al. [200]
Rumex acetosa	FeO2	Quasi-sphere/50   nm	Makarov et al. [200]
Solanum tribotum	FeO2	Spherical/18   nm	Vinothkannan et al. [201]
Cucuma and tea leaves	FeO2	Spherical/4–v   nm	Alagiri et al. [202]
Eucalyptus	FeO2	Spherical/xx–lxxx   nm	Wang et al. [203]
Gardenia jasminoides	Pd	Spherical/3–5   nm	Khan et al. [204]
Pinus resinosa	Pd	Spherical/16–20   nm	Coccia et al. [205]
Cinnamom zeylanicum	Pd	Crystalline/15–20   nm	Sathishkumar et al. [206]
Curcuma longa	Pd	Spherical/10–15   nm	Sathishkumar et al. [207]
Musa paradisica	Pd	Irregular/50   nm	Bankar et al. [208]
Cinnamomum camphora	Pd	multiple/3–6   nm	Yang et al. [209]
Glycine max	Pd	Spherical/15   nm	Petla et al. [111]
Gloriosa superba	CeOii	Spherical/5   nm	Aruguman et al. [210]
Centella asiatica	CeO2	Monodisperes/viii   nm	Shankar et al. [211]
Acalypha indica	CeO2	Spherical/36   nm	Kannan et al. [212]
Piper longum	CeOtwo	Spherical/46   nm	Reddy et al. [213]
China rose petal	CeO2	Nanosheets/seven   nm	Qian et al. [214]
Aloe vera	CeOtwo	Nanorod/twenty   nm	Tamizhdurai et al. [215]
Chlorella vulgaris	NiO	Spherical/5–20   nm	Gong et al. [216]
Lemna gibba Fifty.	NiO	Spherical/xxx   nm	Oukarroum et al. [217]
Chlorella vulgaris	NiO	Spherical/20   nm	Oukarroum et al. [218]

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Forgot To Add Thiosulfate To One Of The Test Tube What Will They Observe?,

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